Applied Linguistics

UNIT IV

    Applied Linguistics is concerned with systematic study of  language structure, the acquisition of  first and second language, the role of language in communication and the status of language as the product of particular cultures and other social groups.

Mother Language (L1)

    It is a language that a person has been exposed to from birth, the L1 of a child is part of the personal, social and cultural identity.

Second Language (L2)

    It is a language learned by a person after his or her native language, especially as a resident of an area where it is in general use.

Foreing Language (FL)

    It is originally from another country. It is also a language not spoken in the native country of the person referred to.

    Some children learn more than one language from birth or from a very young age: they are bilingual or multilingual.

Sciences Involved:

1. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: It is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.

2. SOCIOLINGUISTICS: It is the descriptive study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society´s effect on language.

Sociolinguistics focuses on the society´s effect on language.

3. NEUROLINGUISTICS: It is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension, production, and acquisition of language.

4. ETHNOLINGUISTICS: It is a field of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups preceive the world.

5. ANTHROPOLOGICAL  LINGUISTICS: It is the subfield of linguistics (and anthropology), which deals with the place of language in it´s wider social and cultura context, and its roles in making and maintaining cultural practices and societal structures.

How those sciencies could be applied in a Language Teaching-Learning process to obtain the best results in the learners?

    The best way to obtain the better results as a professor is developing and working in the four skills of the language

• SPEAKING
• LISTENING
• WRITING
• READING

    The applied linguistics is used as a main source of the all sciencies of linguistics.

    The applied linguistics uses all those sciencies to develope linguistics solutions, being itself as the principle “tool” in the Teaching-Learning process.

Applied Linguistics
UNIT III

To Establish the difference among the METHODS, the APPROACHES, the TECHNIQUES and the TOOLS which are used in the Languages teaching-Learning process as:

1.The Direct Method:  

  

    It is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with the grammar–translation method and other traditional approaches, as well as with C.J.Dodson's bilingual method. It was adopted by key international language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua in the 1970s and many of the language departments of the Foreign Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in 2012.

    In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills.

    Characteristic features of the direct method are:

• teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
• teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
• centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
• focus on question-answer patterns

    Direct method is a method of teaching language directly establishing a direct or immediate association between experience and expression, between the English word, phrase or idiom and its meaning through demonstration, dramatization without the use of the mother tongue.

2.The Grammar-Translation method:

     The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translateliterature written in the source language, and to further students' general intellectual development. It originated from the practice of teaching Latin; in the early 1500s, students learned Latin for communication, but after the language died out it was studied purely as an academic discipline. When teachers started teaching other foreign languages in the 19th century, they used the same translation-based approach as had been used for teaching Latin. The method has been rejected by scholars, and has no theoretical basis.

3.Audio-Lingual:

    The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

    This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method.Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.

4.The Structural approach:

    The Structural Approach is a technique wherein the learner masters the pattern of sentence. Structures are the different arrangements of words in one accepted style or the other. It includes various modes in which clauses, phrases or word might be used. It is based on the assumptions that language can be best learnt through a scientific selection and grading of the structures or patterns of sentences and vocabulary.

5.Suggestopedia:

    

     Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used mostly to learn foreign languages.

    The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on "desuggestive learning" and now is often called "desuggestopedia".

    Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words "suggestion" and "pedagogy". A common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However, Lozanov intended it in the sense of offering or proposing, emphasising student choice.

6.Total Physical Response (TPR):

    Total physical response (TPR) is a language teaching method developed by James Asher, a professor emeritus of psychology at San José State University. It is based on the coordination of language and physical movement. In TPR, instructors give commands to students in the target language, and students respond with whole-body actions.

    The method is an example of the comprehension approach to language teaching. The listening and responding (with actions) serves two purposes: It is a means of quickly recognizing meaning in the language being learned, and a means of passively learning the structure of the language itself. Grammar is not taught explicitly, but can be learned from the language input. TPR is a valuable way to learn vocabulary, especially idiomatic terms, e.g., phrasal verbs.

    Asher developed TPR as a result of his experiences observing young children learning their first language. He noticed that interactions between parents and children often took the form of speech from the parent followed by a physical response from the child. Asher made three hypotheses based on his observations: first, that language is learned primarily by listening; second, that language learning must engage the right hemisphere of the brain; and third, that learning language should not involve any stress.

    Total physical response is often used alongside other methods and techniques. It is popular with beginners and with young learners, although it can be used with students of all levels and all age groups.

7.Communicative Language Teaching (CLT):

    Communicative language teaching (CLT), or the communicative approach, is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of study. Language learners in environments utilizing CLT techniques learn and practice the target language through interaction with one another and the instructor, study of "authentic texts" (those written in the target language for purposes other than language learning), and use of the language in class combined with use of the language outside of class. Learners converse about personal experiences with partners, and instructors teach topics outside of the realm of traditional grammar in order to promote language skills in all types of situations. 

    This method also claims to encourage learners to incorporate their personal experiences into their language learning environment and focus on the learning experience in addition to the learning of the target language. According to CLT, the goal of language education is the ability to communicate in the target language. This is in contrast to previous views in which grammatical competence was commonly given top priority. 

    CLT also focuses on the teacher being a facilitator, rather than an instructor. Furthermore, the approach is a non-methodical system that does not use a textbook series to teach English but rather works on developing sound oral/verbal skills prior to reading and writing.

8.The Silent Way:

    The Silent Way is a language-teaching method created by Caleb Gattegno that makes extensive use of silence as a teaching method. Gattegno introduced the method in 1963, in his book Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. Gattegno was critical of mainstream language education at the time, and he based the method on his general theories of education rather than on existing language pedagogy. It is usually regarded as an "alternative" language-teaching method; Cook groups it under "other styles", Richards groups it under "alternative approaches and methods" and Jin & Cortazzi group it under "Humanistic or Alternative Approaches".

    The method emphasizes learner autonomy and active student participation. Silence is used as a tool to achieve this goal; the teacher uses a mixture of silence and gestures to focus students' attention, to elicit responses from them, and to encourage them to correct their own errors. 

    Pronunciation is seen as fundamental to the method, with a great deal of time spent on it each lesson. The Silent Way uses a structural syllabus and concentrates on teaching a small number of functional and versatile words. Translation and rote repetition are avoided, and the language is usually practiced in meaningful contexts. Evaluation is carried out by observation, and the teacher may never set a formal test.

9.Communicative Language Learning:

    It is a language-teaching method in which students work together to develop what aspects of a language they would like to learn. It is based on the Counselling-approach in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and a paraphraser, while the learner is seen as a client and collaborator.

    The CLL emphasizes the sense of community in the learning group, it encourages interaction as a vehicle of learning, and it considers as a priority the students' feelings and the recognition of struggles in language acquisition. There is no syllabus or textbook to follow and it is the students themselves who determine the content of the lesson by means of meaningful conversations in which they discuss real messages. Notably, it incorporates translation, transcription, and recording techniques.

10.Immersion:

    It is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including math, science, or social studies.The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the native language of the student and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different contexts for language immersion, such as age of students, class time spent in the L2, subjects taught, and the level of participation by the native L1 speakers.

    Although programs differ by country and context, most language immersion programs have the overall goal of promoting bilingualism between the two different sets of language speakers. In many cases, biculturalism is also a goal for speakers of the majority language (i.e. the language spoken by the majority of the surrounding population) and the minority language (i.e. the language that is not the majority language). Research has shown that these forms of bilingual education provide students with overall greater language comprehension and production of the L2 in a native-like manner; in addition to, greater exposure to other cultures and the preservation of languages, particularly heritage languages.

11.Task-Based Language Learning:

    Also known as task-based instruction (TBI), focuses on the use of authentic language and on asking students to do meaningful tasks using the target language. Such tasks can include visiting a doctor, conducting an interview, or calling customer service for help. Assessment is primarily based on task outcome (in other words the appropriate completion of real world tasks) rather than on accuracy of prescribed language forms. This makes TBLT especially popular for developing target language fluency and student confidence. As such TBLT can be considered a branch of communicative language teaching (CLT).

12.The Lexical Syllabus:

    It is a method of teaching foreign languages described by Michael Lewis in the early 1990s. The basic concept on which this approach rests is the idea that an important part of learning a language consists of being able to understand and produce lexical phrases as chunks. Students are thought to be able to perceive patterns of language (grammar) as well as have meaningful set uses of words at their disposal when they are taught in this way.

    In the lexical approach, instruction focuses on fixed expressions that occur frequently in dialogues, which Lewis claims make up a larger part of discourse than unique phrases and sentences. Vocabulary is prized over grammar per se in this approach. The teaching of chunks and set phrases has become common in English as a foreign or second language, though this is not necessarily primarily due to the Lexical Approach.

    The lexical syllabus is a form of the propositional paradigm that takes 'word' as the unit of analysis and content for syllabus design. 

General Linguistics

UNIT I

Lingüístics:

 Linguistics is the scientific study of human language, from the sounds and gestures of speech up to the organization of words, sentences, and meaning. Linguistics is also concerned with the relationship between language and cognition, society, and history.

Lingüística:

La lingüística es el estudio científico del lenguaje humano , a partir de los sonidos del habla y gestos hasta la organización de las palabras, frases , y significado . La lingüística también se ocupa de la relación entre el lenguaje y la cognición , la sociedad y la historia.

                                       
 Semiotics:

Semiotics is the study of sign systems. It explores how words and other signs make meaning. In semiotics, a sign is anything that stands in for something other than itself. This lesson focuses primarily on linguistic signs.

Semiótica:

La semiótica es el estudio de los sistemas de signos. Se explora cómo las palabras y otros signos que tienen sentido. En la semiótica , un signo es cualquier cosa que se interponga en algo distinto de sí mismo . Esta lección se centra principalmente en los signos lingüísticos .

Branches of linguistics:

The work of linguists falls into two main areas: language structure and language use. word structure (morphology), sentence structure (syntax), speech sounds and the rules and patterns between them (phonetics and phonology), and meaning in language (semantics and pragmatics).

Phonetics

Phonology

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics        

Pragmatics

Phonetics: is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or/in the case of sign languages the equivalent aspects of sign.

Phonology: is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages. Discussion. The phonological system of a language includes an inventory of sounds and their features, and rules which specify how sounds interact with each other.

Morphology: is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words, affixes, parts of speech, intonations and stresses, or implied context.

Syntax: is the set of rules, principles, and processes that govern the structure of sentences in a given language, specifically word order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such principles and processes.

Semantics: the study of the meanings of words and phrases in language.

Pragmatics: is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics that studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning. Pragmatics encompasses speech act theory, conversational implicature, talk in interaction and other approaches to language behavior in philosophy, sociology, linguistics and anthropology.

Campos en que se divide la lingüística:

El trabajo de los lingüistas se divide en dos áreas principales: la estructura de la lengua y uso de la lengua . estructura de las palabras ( morfología) , estructura de las oraciones (sintaxis ) , los sonidos del habla y las reglas y patrones entre ellos ( la fonología y la fonética ), y significado en el lenguaje ( semántica y pragmática ) .

Fonética

Fonología

Morfología

Sintaxis

Semántica

Pragmática 

Fonética: es una rama de la lingüística que comprende el estudio de los sonidos del habla humana , o / en el caso de las lenguas de signos los aspectos equivalentes de señas.

Fonología: es el estudio de cómo los sonidos se organizan y se utilizan en los lenguajes naturales. Discusión. El sistema fonológico de una lengua incluye un inventario de los sonidos y sus características, y reglas que especifican cómo los sonidos interactúan entre sí .

Morfología: es la identificación , análisis y descripción de la estructura de los morfemas de una lengua dada y otras unidades lingüísticas , como las raíces de palabras , afijos , piezas de voz , entonaciones y las tensiones , o el contexto implícito .

Sitaxis: es el conjunto de normas , principios y procesos que gobiernan la estructura de las oraciones en una lengua dada , específicamente orden de las palabras . La sintaxis término también se utiliza para referirse al estudio de tales principios y procesos.

Semántica: el estudio de los significados de las palabras y frases en el idioma.

La pragmática: es un subcampo de la lingüística y la semiótica que estudia las formas en que contexto contribuye al significado . La pragmática del habla abarca acto teoría, implicatura conversacional , charla en la interacción y otros enfoques de comportamiento lingüístico en la filosofía , la sociología, la antropología y la lingüística .

Auxiliary Sciences of Linguistics:

Many auxiliary science of linguistics. These include : philosophy , logic, mathematics, physics , geography , biology , psychology , anthropology , sociology and history.

Philosophy: The science that is responsible for studying the language and cultural phenomena of a people through written texts.

Physics and Biology: The language is related to the philosophy especially in the study of nature sounds ( Physical Acoustics ) , as we said talking about phonetics. For similar reasons it relates to biology .

Geography : It is one of the most important auxiliary science of linguistics , for all languages ​​were born and evolved in certain geographical contexts , which profoundly influenced their phonics , writing , structure , vocabulary, forms of expression , etc.

Psychology : This is another of the auxiliary sciences of linguistics , as individuals , before talking to other people to communicate their feelings , ideas , concepts , experiences , etc. , think ; ie , " talking to himself " . In addition , speaking of idiolecto we said that while languages ​​are coded systems, use individuals adapt them to their personal characteristics emphasizing certain sounds , modified others, changing the meanings of some words ; that is, humans make use of linguistic signs as a material to communicate with other resource; if possible the direct transmission of thought from one person to another , linguistics would cease to exist .

Anthropology and Sociology: Also important auxiliary science of linguistics . The first studies man and culture ; the second man as a member of a group. From there comes its importance in linguistic studies because , as we said , tongues are social systems and conventional signs , that is, the product of agreement of human beings in society.

History: From the discussion so far , we can conclude that the story contained , beside philosophy, geography , anthropology and sociology , among the most important auxiliary science of linguistics .

Ciencias Auxiliares de la Lingüística: 

Son muchas las ciencias auxiliares de la lingüística. Entre ellas figuran: Filosofía, lógica, matemáticas, física, geografía, biología, psicología, antropología, sociología e historia. 

La Filosofía: Es la ciencia que se encarga de estudiar el lenguaje y los fenómenos culturales de un pueblo a través de textos escritos.

Física y Biología: La lingüística se relaciona con la filosofía sobre todo en el estudio de la naturaleza de los sonidos (Física Acústica), como dijimos de hablar de fonética. Por razones análogas se relaciona con la biología. 

Geografía: Es una de las mas importante ciencias auxiliares de la Lingüística, pues todas las lenguas han nacido y evolucionado en determinados contextos geográficos, que influyeron profundamente sobre sus fonemas, escritura, estructura, vocabulario, formas de expresión, etc. 

Psicología: Es otra de las ciencias auxiliares de la Lingüística, pues los individuos, antes de hablar con otras personas para comunicarles sus sentimientos, ideas, conceptos, experiencias, etc., piensan; es decir, “hablan consigo mismo”. Además, al hablar del idiolecto dijimos que, si bien las lenguas son sistemas codificados, al usarlas los individuos las adaptan a sus características personales acentuando ciertos sonidos, modificado otros, cambiando los significados de algunas palabras; o sea, los seres humanos se valen de los signos lingüísticos como un recurso material para comunicarse con los demás; si fuera posible la transmisión directa del pensamiento de una persona a otra, la Lingüística dejaría de existir. 

Antropología y Sociología: Son también importantes ciencias auxiliares de la Lingüística. La primera estudia al hombre y su cultura; la segunda, al hombre como miembro de un grupo. De allí proviene su importancia en los estudios lingüísticos pues, como dijimos, las lenguas son sistemas de signos convencionales y sociales, o sea, producto del acuerdo de los seres humanos en sociedad. 

Historia: De lo visto hasta el momento, podemos concluir que la historia figura, al lado de la Filosofía, la Geografía, la Antropología y la Sociología, entre las más importantes ciencias auxiliares de la Lingüística.

FEATURED AUTHORS LINGUISTICS:

Pierre Bourdieu

Leonard Bloomfield

Avram Noam Chomsky

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

John Locke

Ferdinand de Saussure

Burrhus Frederic Skinner

AUTORES DESTACADOS DE LA LINGÜISTICA:

Pierre Bourdieu

Leonard Bloomfield

Avram Noam Chomsky

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

John Locke

Ferdinand de Saussure

Burrhus Frederic Skinner

Language: 

It is the ability to acquire and use complex systems of communication, particularly the human ability to do so, and a language is any specific example of such a system. The scientific study of language is called linguistics.

Lenguaje:

 es un sistema de comunicación estructurado para el que existe un contexto de uso y ciertos principios combinatorios formales. Existen contextos tanto naturales como artificiales.

Thought:

Is the activity and creation of the mind; said of everything that is brought into existence through the activity of the intellect. The term is commonly used as a generic form that defines all products that the mind can generate, including the activities of intellect or rational abstractions of the imagination; all that is mental nature is considered thought, whether these abstract, rational, creative, artistic, etc. also it thought considering the coordination of creative work of many individuals with a unified perspective in the context of an institution.

Pensamiento:

Es la actividad y creación de la mente; se dice que es todo aquello que es traído a existencia mediante la actividad del intelecto. El término es comúnmente utilizado como forma genérica que define todos los productos que la mente puede generar incluyendo las actividades racionales del intelecto o las abstracciones de la imaginación; todo aquello que sea de naturaleza mental es considerado pensamiento, bien sean estos abstractos, racionales, creativos, artísticos, etc. Se considera pensamiento también la coordinación del trabajo creativo de múltiples individuos con una perspectiva unificada en el contexto de una institución.

Thoughts Based in Language: 

The linguoespecular thought is that in which we think about meaning and visually associate the written word that represents

Pensamiento Linguoespecular:

El pensamiento linguoespecular es aquel en el que pensamos en un significado y asociamos visualmente a la palabra escrita que lo representa

Thought not Based in Language: 

Sensoactorial that mental configuration is done through images (ie, think of a train and "see" the image of the train

Pensamiento Sensactorial:

Sensoactorial en que la figuración mental se realiza mediante imágenes (es decir, pensamos en un tren y "vemos" la imagen del tren

UNIT II

Individual:

A single human considered apart from a society or community.

Individuo: Persona perteneciente a una clase o grupo, considerada independientemente de las demás.

Self:

It is a difficult term to define the bat given their different meanings. Throughout history its definition has been linked to other terms such as psyche, being, soul , consciousness. The academic approach makes clarifications in the discipline from which it is phrased . The study covers both disciplines I biological orientation , ( psychobiology , neurobiology , neuropsychology, etc. ) , as philosophical and humanistic disciplines court. The term would relate to the concepts of consciousness and cognition.

Yo: 

Es un término difícil de definir de buenas a primeras dadas sus diferentes acepciones. A lo largo de la historia su definición se ha relacionado con otros términos como psique, ser, alma, conciencia. La aproximación académica hace precisiones según la disciplina desde la que se enuncie. El estudio del yo abarca tanto disciplinas de orientación biológica, (psicobiología, neurobiología, neuropsicología, etc.), como disciplinas de corte filosófico y humanista. El término yo se relacionaría con los conceptos de conciencia y cognición.

Group:

An assemblage of persons or objects gathered or located together. 

Grupo: 

Un grupo se define como dos o más individuos, interactuantes e interdependientes, que se han reunido para alcanzar determinados objetivos específicos.

Society:

An organized group of persons associated together for religious, benevolent, cultural, scientific, political, patriotic, or other purposes.

Sociedad: 

La sociedad es la totalidad de individuos que guardan relaciones los unos con los otros. Así, las personas comparten una serie de rasgos culturales que permite alcanzar la cohesión del grupo, estableciéndose metas y perspectivas comunes.

Convention:

A meeting or formal assembly, as of representatives or delegates, for discussion of and action on particular matters of common concern.

Convención:

Es un evento de vocación privada, generalmente organizado por una sola empresa, con una duración mínima de dos días y al menos cincuenta participantes.

Behavior: 

The actions or reactions of a person or animal in response to external or internal stimuli.

Conducta:

Es el conjunto de actos, comportamientos, exteriores de un ser humano y que por esta característica exterior resultan visibles y plausibles de ser observados por otros.

Knowledge:

It is a set of information stored by experience or learning (a posteriori ) , or through introspection (a priori) . In the broadest sense , it is the possession of multiple interrelated data which, when taken alone , have a lower qualitative value .

Conocimiento:

Es un conjunto de información almacenada mediante la experiencia o el aprendizaje (a posteriori), o a través de la introspección (a priori). En el sentido más amplio del término, se trata de la posesión de múltiples datos interrelacionados que, al ser tomados por sí solos, poseen un menor valor cualitativo.

Cognoscitivismo:

Es una teoría del conocimiento orientada la comprensión de las cosas basándose en la percepción de los objetos y de las relaciones e interacciones entre ellos. El cognoscitivismo establece que la apreciación de la realidad es adecuada cuando se pueden establecer relaciones entre las entidades.

Cognoscitivism: 

As a perspective in education, has a premise that humans generate knowledge and meaning through sequential development of an individual’scognitive abilities, such as the mental processes of recognize, recall, analyze, reflect, apply, create, understand, and evaluate.

Constructivism: 

A perspective in education is based on experimental learning through real life experience to construct and conditionalize knowledge. It is problem based, adaptive learning, that challenges faulty schema, integrates new knowledge with existing knowledge, and allows for creation of original work or innovative procedures.

Constructivismo:

Es una corriente pedagógica creada por Ernst von Glasersfeld, basándose en la teoría del conocimiento constructivista, que postula la necesidad de entregar al alumno herramientas (generar andamiajes) que le permitan crear sus propios procedimientos para resolver una situación problemática, lo cual implica que sus ideas se modifiquen y siga aprendiendo.

Language: 

A human system of communication that uses arbitrary signals, such as voice sounds, gestures, or written symbols.

Idioma:

Es un sistema de comunicación verbal o gestual propio de una comunidad humana. En la práctica, hay idiomas muy similares entre sí, a los que se llama dialectos, o más propiamente variedades lingüísticas, mutuamente inteligibles.

Dialect: 

A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists.

Dialecto: 

Un dialecto sería la variante de una lengua asociada con una determinada zona geográfica.

Traditional Grammar:

The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of language that is commonly taught in schools.

Gramática Tradicional: 

Es el enfoque gramatical precientífico empleado en la educación y la enseñanza de segundas lenguas. En general la gramática tradicional consta de una terminología clasificatoria para los elementos que intervienen en la gramática y para cada lengua concreta formula una serie de reglas concretas. 

Structuralism: 

A method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behavior, culture, and experience that focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system that reflect patterns underlying a superficial diversity.

Estructuralismo: 

Es el nombre que designa al sistema científico que se ocupa del estudio de los datos en el contexto al cual pertenecen y además analiza las relaciones que se establecen entre los mismos. 

Generativism:

Generative grammar or generativism is a very important concept in linguistics. It refers to the fact that languages are systems with limited sets of linguistics item out of which we can generate endless number of sentences.

Generativismo:

La gramática generativa o generativismo es un concepto muy importante en la lingüística. Se refiere al hecho de que las lenguas son sistemas que comprenden juegos limitados de la lingüística elemento fuera de las cuales podemos generar sinfín de frases.

Funtionalism: 

In linguistics, the approach to language study that is concerned with the functions performed by language, primarily in terms of cognition (relating information), expression (indicating mood), and con.

Funcionalismo:

En la lingüística , la aproximación al estudio de la lengua que se ocupa de las funciones realizadas por el lenguaje, sobre todo en términos de la cognición (información relacionada) , la expresión (estado de ánimo que indica) , y en contra.

UNIT III

SUBSISTEMAS LINGÜÍSTICOS:

  Todas las lenguas constituyen sistemas que, a su vez, se organizan en subsistemas, a los que suele llamarse planos lingüísticos: el fónico, el gramatical o morfosintáctico y el léxico-semántico. Los describiremos brevemente, delimitando las unidades que el análisis lingüístico encuentra en cada uno de ellos.

LINGUISTICS SUBSYSTEMS:

  In linguistics, languages are often studied in terms of six major subsystems, which relate to major subfields within linguistics. In addition, particular subfields of linguistic inquiry may divide their subject matter into more specific subsystems.

Linguists recognize seven major language subsystems:

Phonetics, Morphology, Phonology, Syntax, Semantics, Pragmatics, Lexicology.

FONOLÓGICO:

  

  Es la rama de la lingüística que estudia los sistemas fónicos de las lenguas, frente a la articulación física del lenguaje (Fonética).

PHONOLOGICAL: 

  The study of speech sounds in language or a language with reference to their distribution and patterning and to tacit rules governing pronunciation.

SINTÁCTICO: 

  Se denomina función sintáctica al papel que desempeña una palabra o morfema o constituyente sintáctico dentro de una construcción sintáctica que la incluye o, más precisamente, a las relaciones de combinación o relaciones sintagmáticas que una palabra mantiene con los demás vocablos de un contexto.

SYNTACTICAL: 

  Of, relating to, or conforming to the rules of syntax. 

SEMÁNTICO: 

  Se refiere a los aspectos del significado, sentido o interpretación de signos lingüísticos como símbolos, palabras, expresiones o representaciones formales.

SEMANTICAL: 

  Is the study of meaning. It focuses on the relation betweensignifiers, like words, phrases, signs, and symbols, and what they stand for, theirdenotation.

DESCRIPCIÓN: 

  

  Representación o explicación detallada de las cualidades, características o circunstancias de algo o de alguien.

DESCRIPTION: 

  A statement or account that describes representation in words.

PRESCRIPCIÓN: 

  Disposición orden determinada por una autoridad.

PRESCRIPTION: 

  The act of establishing official rules, laws, or directions.

UNIT IV

SEMÁNTICA ESTRUCTURALISTA: 

  La semántica estructural, en aplicación consecuente de los principios saussureanos, ha distinguido netamente entre los términos «estructura» y los términos «nomencladores» o «tecnicismos»; distinción fundamental para toda consideración que se quiera hacer en el terreno del significado del léxico. En efecto, la semántica estructural sólo puede tener por objeto de estudio los términos estructurados, aquellos cuyo significado se configura en la lengua, fruto de una relación con los otros significados de su campo nocional.

STRUCTURALIST SEMANTICS: 

  It´sthe study of relationships between the meanings of terms within a sentence, and how meaning can be composed from smaller elements.

SEMÁNTICA GENERATIVISTA: 

  Dentro de las ideas más influyentes de estructuras sintácticas cabe mencionar lo que se llamó luego problema lógico de la adquisición del lenguaje o problema de Platón.

A partir de ejemplos como estos, Chomsky infiere que debe existir un conocimiento formal, previo a la experiencia, que permita que el niño maneje todas esas nociones con suma rapidez y sin instrucción explícita.

GENERATIVIST SEMANTICS: 

  Is the name of a research program within linguistics, initiated by the work of various early students of Noam Chomsky: John R. Ross, Paul Postal, and later James McCawley. George Lakoff was also instrumental in developing and advocating the theory.